Fundación Para La Tierra

Para La Tierra conserves fragile habitats in Paraguay through scientific research, community engagement and environmental education. Wildlife research and conservation is undertaken in the Neembucu wetlands and the Atlantic rainforest of the San Rafael National Park. Shorter term conservation and research expeditions are made to the dry Chaco to study the endemic species of this region. Para La Tierra is based in Pilar, in the south of the country and this is where most of the work is conducted.

Conservation Scholarships

Ecology of black howler monkeys in an urban environment

The Urban Howler Monkey Project at PLT focusing on understanding the ecological impacts urbanisation has on the black-and-gold howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya). The project is based in Pilar, southwest Paraguay, which has a unique population of urban howler monkeys living within the city limits. Little is currently known about how the species will adapt successfully to anthropogenic habitat alteration. With natural control populations living in the surrounding Ñeembucú Wetland Complex we study the behaviour, health, habitat and spatial use and demographics we assess the impact of living in an urbanised environment on the species. As their long-term survival relies on adapting to the urban environment, it is crucial to understand the viability of urban howler populations.

Does Anthropogenic Disturbance Impact the Social Networks Between Black-and-Gold Howler Monkeys (Alouatta caraya)?

Primate groups inhabiting urban landscapes encounter numerous novel dangers and an ever- changing environment. In order to persist in these areas, social relationships are essential, as stronger intragroup bonds have been shown to reduce the stressors of the urban matrix in multiple primate species (Jaman & Huffman, 2013). Kinship is known to have a significant bearing on the strength of primate social bonds, with the most apparent association often consisting of a mother and an infant (Maestripieri & Hoffman, 2011). Yet, the overall cohesion of a group could signify how likely they are to survive long term. Therefore, it is vital for us to determine the strength and quality of social bonds within city-based howler groups and compare group cohesion to non-disturbed groups. This way, we can assess their behavioural plasticity to an anthropogenically modified habitat. However, the genus Alouatta spends very little of its time performing conspicuous social maintenance tasks like grooming (Brividoro et al., 2021).
Aims
• To determine whether the strength of intragroup relationships are impacted by living in an urban environment.
• To understand whether huddling can be used to quantify individual relationships between the howler monkeys.
• To understand whether group composition or size has any bearing on the strength of these social bonds.

This project will focus on three urban and non-urbanised groups of different compositions.
Using continuous behavioural sampling, you will monitor each group for any grooming or huddling interactions. When an interaction occurs, the individual initiating the grooming or huddling will be identified, as will the receiver. In addition, the amount of time spent performing that task will also be recorded to help determine the strengths of the social bonds. With this information, we can create multiple social networks for each group, and using Social Network Analyses (SNA), we can analyse whether the individuals have significant preferences.

Determining the Factors Behind Black-and-Gold Howler Monkey (Alouatta caraya) Latrine Use.

A feature of some black-and-gold howler monkey (Alouatta caraya) groups is the use of frequent defecation sites, also known as latrines. It has been theorised that these sites are a behavioural strategy to avoid food contamination with faecal matter, which will reduce the transmission pathways for some parasites (Gilbert, 1997). However, not all groups use an obvious latrine and instead defecate at random sites, often initiated by other group members. Moreover, groups residing in fragmented habitats may have fewer options for a designated latrine and, therefore, might be at a higher risk of infection (Kane & Smith, 2020). With the genus Alouatta known to rub its perianal region immediately after defecation, it is currently unknown how effective latrines are in reducing the spread of gastrointestinal parasites (Lopes et al., 2022).

Aims
• To assess how urbanisation, group composition, number of individuals, and territorial range affect the likelihood of using a latrine.
• To analyse whether there are specific locations for the placement of latrines, e.g., proximity to sleeping sites.
• To help collect data for a long-term study on analysing gastrointestinal parasites in Alouatta caraya amongst groups inhabiting a range of anthropogenically disturbed areas.

This project will focus on four groups across three field sites, resulting in a total of 12. The study entails arriving before dawn at each site to GPS the group’s sleeping site and avoid
missing the first defecation period after waking up. Every time an individual defecates the identity of the individual, the GPS location and the time will be recorded. In addition, the frequency of perianal rubbing immediately after defecation should be noted. Each group will then be followed until dusk to maximise the amount of data collected. All of this data will then be collated into an extensive database that can be used to identify specific trends in latrine use. The following analysis will likely take place on the application QGIS and R studio.

Analysing Differences in Feeding Behaviours Across a Range of Anthropogenically Disturbed Habitats in Black-and-Gold Howler Monkeys (Alouatta caraya)

Species persisting in the urban matrix often rely on clumped resources, the quality of which can significantly impact the viability of that population (Singh, 2019). Predominantly, generalist species are the ones that can adapt to the urban environment. This has allowed a population of florivorous black-and-gold howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya) to exist in the city of Pilar. However, in their natural habitats, howler monkeys are known to supplement their leaf-based diets with higher-caloric foods like fruit, which can often be challenging to attain in the city. Significant differences in their dietary intake can lead to detrimental impacts on a population's health (Chaves & Bicca-Marques, 2013). Moreover, understanding how plastic a species' dietary requirements are can help conservation projects identify the attributes of an area that can sustain a population of howler monkeys.
Aims
• To evaluate the differences in dietary intake between groups living in the urban environment and a more natural setting.
• To understand whether fruit intake is significantly reduced in urban areas or if it causes evident resource clumping.
• To analyse an anthropogenically impacted area's key components that sustain a social group of howlers.

This project will involve studying four howler monkey groups situated in both urban and natural environments. Data collection will start at dawn and continue for the rest of the day. Using continuous behavioural sampling, every time a member of a group is witnessed eating record:
• The GPS location.
• The identity of the individual (if this is not possible, note their sex and age group).
• The identification of the food item.

If a food item cannot be identified at the time, a GPS location should still be taken along with a picture so that we can consult with experts. Eventually, an extensive database will be constructed from all the collated data, which will help identify key food sources that allow a group of howlers to persist. Furthermore, it can help identify any intergroup and intragroup caloric differences.

Impact of Urbanisation on Avian Behaviour - Nest site selection by the monk parakeet in urban and natural environment.

Pilar is known as the City of Birds for its high diversity of avian species. In Ñeembucú department 330 species of birds have been recorded. Many species have been able to successfully colonise the urban environment and appear to be able to live alongside people. Two of these species are the burrowing owl and the monk parakeet.

• Record GPS locations of monk parakeet nests in Pilar and Estancia Santa Ana.
• Record tree species, tree height, distance to human structure, number of nests within
2m.

Impact of Urbanisation on Avian Behaviour - Nest site selection by the burrowing owl in urban and natural environment.

Pilar is known as the City of Birds for its high diversity of avian species. In Ñeembucú department 330 species of birds have been recorded. Many species have been able to successfully colonise the urban environment and appear to be able to live alongside people. Two of these species are the burrowing owl and the monk parakeet.

• Record GPS locations of monk parakeet nests in the Pilar military base, Yegros Pasos and Estancia Santa Ana.
• Record number of owls per burrow and distance between burrows.
• Record habitat measurements including vegetation height, distance to water and type
of water source (river, swamp, pond), presence of absence of livestock.

Please Note: All Costs are indicative because flights, accommodation and other cost fluctuate. All costs will be discussed and agreed with funders, participants and scholars.